For this report, disinformation is defined as the deliberate dissemination of false or misleading information to deceive or confuse the audience and promote one's political agenda. The Russian disinformation campaign, often referred to as an "information war," constitutes one of the most significant challenges for contemporary Western societies and Western policy in the Middle East. Individual operations within this campaign are conducted by specialised units of Russian services and a network of Russian and pro- Russian media (Zadrozny, 2024) to influence public opinion, destabilise political situations in various countries, and undermine citizens' trust in democratic institutions. Importantly, in Russian strategy, the information war is not confined to periods of kinetic operations. It is not even limited to the so-called initial phase of a conflict, i.e., before the commencement of direct military actions. It encompasses the informational preparation of the battlefield, which involves adequately motivating one's own and allied soldiers and citizens while demotivating and sowing confusion among the opponent. Unlike other forms and methods of confrontation, informational conflict is conducted by Russians virtually continuously, even during peacetime (Nocetti, 2019).
